The Journal of Environment & Development recent issues

Varieties of Carbon Governance in Newly Industrializing Countries

Fuhr, H., Lederer, M. — Wed, 18 Nov 2009 20:16:03 PST

Recently established carbon governance systems are quite different in Brazil, China, and India. Such divergence is surprising as emerging economies are primarily involved in carbon governance through the clean development mechanism (CDM). One would expect similar institutional and policy outcomes in the major host countries in response to the CDM, as this market instrument is initiated primarily by Western companies and regulated hierarchically by the internationally governed CDM Executive Board. However, from a closer look at the developing features of the CDM markets in Brazil, China, or India and an analysis of dominant actors and their interactions, institutional responses, and the effectiveness of the CDM within each market, there is evidence of a high variance, combined with a strong ownership by the respective governments. Such a variety of carbon governance is interesting from a theoretical point of view as it shows that a good understanding of environmental governance patterns is still lacking in developing and emerging economies. It is also of political importance as the findings may help to diffuse some of the criticism leveled at the CDM.

Varieties of Carbon Governance: Taking Stock of the Local Carbon Market in India

Benecke, G. — Wed, 18 Nov 2009 20:16:03 PST

Judged by the sheer number of clean development mechanism (CDM) projects registered and in the pipeline, India undoubtedly can be seen as a success story as far as the functioning of the local carbon market is concerned. However, questions are repeatedly raised about the efficient working of the CDM, its distributional quality, its effectiveness in meeting broader societal goals, its impacts on sustainable development, to name but a few.This calls for a careful scrutiny and understanding of how exactly carbon governance works in the specific case of India. As demonstrated in the article, India presents a case of market-dominated carbon governance taking place under a weak shadow of hierarchy and with little civil society involvement. This article derives at the overall conclusion that the specific trajectories characterizing the local Indian carbon market point toward globally diverging carbon governance.

Varieties of Carbon Governance: Utilizing the Clean Development Mechanism for Chinese Priorities

Schroeder, M. — Wed, 18 Nov 2009 20:16:03 PST

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is a market mechanism that was created by an international regime, but its successful implementation relies on effective CDM governance within its host countries. What kinds of carbon governance patterns are appropriate for reaching the goals of the Kyoto Protocol? Taking China—the leading CDM host country worldwide—as a case study, this article examines the patterns of Chinese carbon governance. The hypothesis brought forward is that the Chinese government is apt in utilizing the international market mechanism CDM for its own priorities by adding own national requirements. The dominating carbon governance pattern is state regulation, while private actors from the business community and from civil society play only a minor role. The article concludes by discussing the implications of the Chinese variety of carbon governance for the post-2012 climate regime.

Varieties of Carbon Governance: The Clean Development Mechanism in Brazil--a Success Story Challenged

Friberg, L. — Wed, 18 Nov 2009 20:16:03 PST

This article analyzes the interaction between stakeholders in the clean development mechanism (CDM) in Brazil and assesses the impacts this market mechanism has had on institutions and on the climate change policy discourse in Brazil. Brazil ranks as the third largest host country for CDM projects, even though it has maintained a strong commitment to the environmental integrity of the CDM system. Despite its positive experience with the CDM, the government is opposing the inclusion of tradable carbon credits for reduced deforestation in the post-2012 climate regime.The main benefits of the CDM for Brazil have been its contribution to diversifying the energy system and to creating human and institutional capacity for carbon governance. These are important assets as Brazil develops its own national policies to tackle climate change.

Varieties of CDM Governance: Some Reflections

Newell, P. — Wed, 18 Nov 2009 20:16:03 PST

This overview discusses a series of themes critical to understanding the governance of clean development that cut across each of the case studies showcased in this special issue. Firstly, the question of who draws the boundaries around what is to be governed, what is not, and by whom, where each of the contributions highlight conflicts over which projects and sectors should be part of the CDM and which actors should be charged with their management. Secondly, how we define and what we mean by governance, where I argue for a broader notion of governance that adequately captures the range of governing functions exercised by the plurality of state and non-state actors in this domain. Thirdly, each of themes relates to the question of power: power to define what is and is not clean and sustainable development; the power that determines which countries are able to steer CDM investments toward sectors aligned with their overall development priorities, and the combinations of public and private power that demonstrate as well as explain the varieties of carbon governance documented in this special issue. My argument is that the observed diversity of carbon governance reflects differences in governance in general in those countries. It is impossible politically, and unhelpful conceptually, to attempt to understand carbon and clean development governance without reference to the broader political-economic context in which it is embedded and which it seeks to transform. But whether it is in the area of energy, waste, or forests, CDM governance is incorporated within and predated by political structures, institutions, conflicts, and interests that shape the amenability of a sector and country to pressures toward convergence, standardization, and universalization.

Clean Development Mechanism and Least Developed Countries: Changing the Rules for Greater Participation

De Lopez, T., Tin, P., Iyadomi, K., Santos, S., McIntosh, B. — Wed, 18 Nov 2009 20:16:03 PST

The clean development mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol is designed not only to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) but also to contribute locally to sustainable development. As a market-based mechanism, CDM has the potential to channel private investments into development activities with economic, social, and environmental benefits. Unfortunately, investments have tended to flow where CDM activities provide higher returns with limited economic and political risks, that is, outside of least developed countries (LDCs).To date, only a handful of LDCs have been able to participate in the CDM. This article discusses opportunities for modifying the CDM rules to provide more opportunities for LDCs. Regulatory reforms, technical assistance programs, and direct registration and certification of CDM activities in LDCs by the UNFCCC Secretariat may help foster CDM activities in LDCs . As negotiations regarding the post-2012 climate regime are afoot, an overhaul of the CDM toward a mechanism more friendly to LDCs is necessary.

The Evolution of the CDM in a Post-2012 Climate Agreement

Figueres, C., Streck, C. — Wed, 16 Sep 2009 23:12:40 PDT

Despite the many calls to reform the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), its conceptual underpinnings are strong and it will most likely survive in the post-2012 climate regime. Some modifications may be considered in the short term to strengthen the effectiveness and transparency of the mechanism without modifying the Marrakech Accords. In the medium term, substantially increased mitigation efforts in developing countries may require a combination of three possible financial mechanisms: the current activity-based CDM albeit improved, a second market mechanism that would seek to improve the long term emission trends of developing countries by promoting broad-based emission reduction programs primarily in the private sector, and a third— nonmarket—financial mechanism that would provide an incentive for the adoption of policy changes leading to a low carbon path, but where emission reductions would not be used as international offsets.

The Role of Science in the Global Governance of Desertification

Bauer, S., Stringer, L. C. — Wed, 16 Sep 2009 23:12:40 PDT

The problem of desertification sits at the interface of environmental and developmental concerns. In this article, we examine the institutional relationship between desertification science and policy through focus on the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) and its subsidiary body, the Committee on Science and Technology. We argue that the UNCCD’s limited impact on fighting desertification to date may be partly attributed—among other factors—to an inadequate institutional interface between the political convention process and the scientific community. A huge body of international scientific expertise could help to further operationalize the normative provisions of the convention for on-the-ground implementation; yet the institutional architecture for ideational interplay between the UNCCD and scientific community concerned with desertification restricts the extent to which this potential is harnessed. Decisions adopted at the most recent Conference of the Parties of the UNCCD in 2007 seek to rectify this, and although these mark an important step forward, it remains doubtful whether they are sufficient to curb the root causes of the convention’s underlying problems.

Institutional and Development Issues in Integrated Water Resource Management of Saigon River

Sajor, E. E., Minh Thu, N. — Wed, 16 Sep 2009 23:12:40 PDT

The article focuses on endogenous institutional factors in the water sector and the challenges and opportunities to an alternative integrated management approach in Vietnam, particularly in the context of its political legacy, current development goal, and Doi Moi reforms, using Saigon River as a case study. It investigates three institutional problem areas constituting major constraints to integrated water resources management (IWRM): (a) bureaucratic fragmentation and separatism, (b) top-downism negating multistakeholder participation, and (c) highly centralized administration. It also highlights how the goal of rapid industrialization and economic growth tends to marginalize environmental concerns in policies in water and river management. The authors argue that despite great incompatibilities of the legacy and present features of water-related institutions to IWRM, broader exogenous factors in the country can provide impetus to water institutional changes. These are the currently ongoing reforms of grassroots participation and decentralization as well as the country’s enhanced integration and cooperation with the international community, especially with development donor agencies.

CITES and Livelihood: Converting Words Into Action

Mathur, A. — Wed, 16 Sep 2009 23:12:40 PDT

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is the key international agreement regulating trade in wildlife. It works through a system of trade controls based on biological and international trade data of species. Trade regulations also affect local people as many rural households, especially in developing countries, depend on trade in wildlife for their livelihood. In the last few years, there is a growing realization within CITES that effect on local populations cannot be ignored while implementing regulations to control wildlife trade internationally. This article discusses the livelihood debate within CITES and analyses whether it is an issue CITES should consider. The article concludes that as synergy between multilateral agreements is increasing and as the livelihoods debate surfaces at every CITES meeting, it is an issue CITES cannot take lightly. Detailed research studying the effect on local communities and how livelihoods is incorporated within CITES is required. Considering the outcome at the CITES Conference of Parties (CoP) 14 held in June 2007, recommendations are given in this article for paving the way forward.

On the Sources of Consumer Boycotts Ineffectiveness

Delacote, P. — Wed, 16 Sep 2009 23:12:40 PDT

This article investigates weaknesses of consumer boycotts. First, usual shortcomings of collective action, such as coordination failure and free riding, reduce considerably the success likelihood. Second, consumers with the highest ability to hurt the targeted firm’s profit also have the highest opportunity cost of boycotting. Thus, they are less likely to participate in the boycott. Conversely, the most involved consumers have high environmental preferences and small amounts of consumption, which prevent them from hurting the firm’s profit enough.

Options to Improve Livelihoods and Protect Natural Resources in Dry Environments: The Case of the Khanasser Valley in Syria

Tue, 12 May 2009 10:03:34 PDT

This article reviews work that had the objective of introducing agricultural technologies in a marginal dryland area, the Khanasser Valley, northwestern Syria. The highly variable rainfall is barely sufficient to support livelihoods in this traditional barley—livestock production system. The valley is representative of other marginal dryland areas in West Asia and North Africa. We used a farmer-participatory approach to evaluate the performance of agricultural technologies for dry marginal areas in terms of their contribution to livelihoods and effect on the environment. The integrated approach allowed comprehensively comparing and evaluating the viability of promising technologies, including novel crops, intercropping, soil management techniques, and livestock rearing. The results show that improved barley varieties, olives, cumin, and lamb fattening can improve livelihoods, particularly for the land-owning households, whereas other households can benefit indirectly in terms of employment spillovers. These options are also environmentally friendly and sustain the natural resource base.

Toward a Policy of Sustainable Forest Management in Brazil: A Historical Analysis

Banerjee, O., Macpherson, A. J., Alavalapati, J. — Tue, 12 May 2009 10:03:34 PDT

Understanding the forces that drove policy in the past can inform expectations of the effectiveness of policy implementation today. Forest policies of countries with forested frontiers transition through stages of forest management, reflecting the orientation of governments toward economic development. The article follows Brazilian national forest policy from the early 20th century from colonization to protectionism, during which extrasectoral policies largely served to marginalize forest policy. More recently, profound changes in Brazil's governance structures, civil society's progressively important role in influencing policy, and recognition of the biophysical importance of forests have fostered an emerging vision of the Amazon as a region whose primary vocation is sustainable forest management. The sustainable management phase of forest policy development and the approval of Brazil's first Public Forest Management Law, given the current socioeconomic, political, and environmental context, present an unprecedented opportunity for increasing the relevance of forest policy in shaping land use.

The Asiatic Lion and the Maldharis of Gir Forest: An Assessment of Indian Eco-Development

Varma, K. — Tue, 12 May 2009 10:03:34 PDT

This article is an analysis of the India Eco-Development Project (IEP) implemented in Sasan Gir National Park and Sanctuary. Statistical data describing the consumption patterns and financial status of the Maldharis was collected from 13 nesses. This information demonstrates the impact of the Maldharis on Gir, a lack of willingness among people to change environmentally harmful behavior when forest-dependent activities are economically beneficial, and that participatory approaches under IEP have resulted in positive changes in the lifestyle of the Maldharis and enhanced relationships with the forest department but have failed to improve conservation. The research seeks to assess the effectiveness of IEP in reducing the dependency of Maldharis on natural resources by considering (a) appropriateness of IEP strategies for the Maldharis; (b) methods used to apply IEP strategies; (c) amount of understanding of IEP among the Maldharis, particularly women; and (d) the ability and willingness of Maldharis to participate in IEP.

Nature Conservation and Human Well-Being in Bhutan: An Assessment of Local Community Perceptions

Rinzin, C., Vermeulen, W. J. V., Wassen, M. J., Glasbergen, P. — Tue, 12 May 2009 10:03:34 PDT

Bhutan's nature conservation policy aims to integrate nature conservation and economic development. This policy is guided by a Buddhist attitude that places coexistence with nature over exploitation of nature for economic gain. We looked at how nature conservation policy affected everyday life and economic activities of local communities and what this may imply for the country's long-term socioeconomic development. The study includes a field survey involving 210 local residents in two national parks. The results indicated that there is support for nature conservation in local communities despite the significant restrictions on the use of non—timber forest products and the loss of crops to wild animals. However, the compensation schemes are inadequate which may lead to depopulation and the abandonment of land in rural areas.

The Humanity of Global Environmental Ethics

Wapner, P., Matthew, R. A. — Tue, 12 May 2009 10:03:34 PDT

Over the past decade, scholars have begun to develop the discipline of global environmental ethics. In doing so, they have encountered two obstacles. First, much environmentalism cloaks itself in the discourse of prudence and security, and thus, ethical concerns are difficult to identify. Second, when scholars do recognize ethical issues, they explain them in terms of how people treat the nonhuman world and advance a biocentric or ecocentric moral sensibility. This is a problem to the degree that it neglects countless instances of environmental injustice that involve the way humans treat each other, using nature as a medium. This article illuminates the nonprudential dimensions of global environmental affairs and explains how a focus on the way humans mistreat each other can serve as a central ethical focus for understanding and addressing environmental injustice. Overall, it aims to provide a vocabulary for advancing an anthropocentric sensibility toward global environmental ethical concern.

A Year of Dramatic Change Brings Opportunity to Rethink the Value of Environmental Taxes

Clemencon, R. — Tue, 03 Feb 2009 15:26:08 PST

Forest Management Policies and Resource Balance in China: An Assessment of the Current Situation

Demurger, S., Hou Yuanzhao, , Yang Weiyong, — Tue, 03 Feb 2009 15:26:08 PST

Using the latest forest inventory, this article provides a detailed analysis of China's changing forest sector by focusing on new forest trends, forest policy changes, and challenges to achieving a sustainable forest management. The authors analyze the dynamics of forest resources and provide an impact assessment of forest policies on China's forestry development during the past decades. Moreover, the analysis of the forest market highlights substantial disequilibria marked by a limited domestic supply potential and a growing demand for forest products satisfied by increasing imports. Internal and external solutions are explored, and their implications for China and supplying countries are assessed.

Saving the Woodpeckers: Social Capital, Governance, and Policy Performance

Duit, A., Hall, O., Mikusinski, G., Angelstam, P. — Tue, 03 Feb 2009 15:26:08 PST

This article investigates if higher levels of social capital, better governance structures, and a more ambitious conservation policy are positively linked to the ability of states to address biodiversity loss. Serving this purpose is a data set containing estimates of woodpecker diversity in 20 European countries. These data are argued to be a more valid indicator of biodiversity than most other available cross-national measures of environmental quality. A seemingly unrelated regression analysis reveals that none of the indicators are linked to higher levels of woodpecker diversity, which in turn leads to the conclusion that present institutions, environmental policies, and social structures have negligible effects on biodiversity compared to long-term landscape transformations.

Lake Victoria Fish Stocks and the Effects of Water Hyacinth

Kateregga, E., Sterner, T. — Tue, 03 Feb 2009 15:26:08 PST

This article analyzes the effects of the invasion of water hyacinth on fishing in Lake Victoria. The authors built two fairly standard Schaefer-type models that have one innovation: They allow the water hyacinth abundance to affect catchability. The authors estimated static and dynamic catch per unit of effort functions for Lake Victoria fisheries, investigating the trend in the lake's stocks during the period 1983 to 2000 and focusing particularly on the effect of the water hyacinth on fish stocks and on catchability coefficients. The results show that although fish stocks have fallen since 1990, this decline appears to have been at least temporarily halted by the declining catchability of fish because of the growing abundance of water hyacinth. The impact of the hyacinth on the catchability of fish was greatest in the Kenyan section of Lake Victoria. Although hyacinth has many negative effects, it effectively hinders fishing and thereby paradoxically stops or at least postpones serious overfishing.

Norway, the United States, and Commercial Whaling: Political Culture and Social Movement Framing

Bailey, J. L. — Tue, 03 Feb 2009 15:26:08 PST

Norway has long tried to portray itself as one of the most environmentally responsible states. But it has consistently refused to support the moratorium against commercial whaling. This article offers a cultural explanation for this seeming contradiction, by examining the way the global antiwhaling movement framed the issue and the Norwegian environmental organizations reframed it. It argues that two cultural differences are relevant. First, animal-rights organizations were an important part of the U.S. antiwhaling coalition, whereas such organizations are largely excluded from the Norwegian environmental activist community, where animal rights arguments have found little traction. Secondly, U.S. nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) operate in an adversarial pluralistic political culture, whereas the Norwegian environmental movement is embedded in a corporatist system where consensual decision making is the norm and has fostered a close relationship with the state. This has led to different images and strategic considerations being used by NGOs to frame the issue and ultimately to different decisions on the need for a moratorium.

Books Received

Tue, 03 Feb 2009 15:26:08 PST